My Penis Stuff

There are many reasons to reverse a vasectomy like remarriage following a divorce or starting a family over after the loss of a wife or child. Regardless of your reason, there are now advanced methods to restore your fertility. How do you know the options that are right for you? By arming yourself with the latest information, you can make informed decisions with your doctor.

What is a vasectomy reversal?

A vasectomy is a minor surgical procedure in which the sperm duct, or vas deterens, is cut in order to achieve sterility. Vasectomy reversal restores fertility by reconnecting the ends of the severed vas deferens, which is located in each side of the scrotum, or by connecting the vas deferens to the epididymis, the small organ on the back of the testis where sperm matures. These procedures can be accomplished through various approaches, including microsurgery, restoring the passage for sperm to be ejaculated out the urethra.

What are the different types of vasectomy reversals?

Reversals are generally performed in an outpatient area of a hospital or in an ambulatory surgery center. The operation is usually performed with general anesthesia if the surgical microscope is used, as any movement is magnified under the microscope. The choice will depend on the preference of the surgeon, patient and anesthesiologist.

Once the patient is anesthetized, the urologist will make a small incision (cut) on each side of the scrotum and first remove the scarred ends of the vas at the point of blockage created by the vasectomy. The urologist will then extract a fluid sample from the end closest to the testicle to see if the fluid contains sperm.

The presence of sperm in the fluid is an indication that there is no obstruction between the testicle and the location in the vas from which the fluid was obtained, and particularly that there is no blockage in the epididymis. When sperm are present in the fluid, the ends of the vas can be connected to reestablish the passageway for sperm. The medical term for reconnecting the ends of the vas is vasovasostomy.

The microsurgical approach uses a high-powered microscope to magnify structures from five to 40 times their actual size. Use of an operating microscope provides better results, as it allows the urologist to manipulate stitches smaller in diameter than an eyelash to join the ends of the vas. When microsurgery is used, vasovasostomy results in return of sperm to the semen in 75 percent to 99 percent of patients and pregnancy in 30 percent to 75 percent of female partners, depending upon the length of time from the vasectomy until the reversal (see next section).

If the urologist does not find sperm in the fluid sample, it may be because the original vasectomy resulted in back pressure that caused a break in the epididymal tubule. Because any break in this single, continuous tube can result in a blockage, the urologist will have to employ a more complicated reversal technique called an epididymovasostomy or vasoepididymostomy. In this procedure, the urologist must bypass the blockage in the epididymis by connecting the “upper” (abdominal) end of the vas to the epididymis above the point of the blockage.

While vasoepididymostomy is a more complex procedure than vasovasostomy due to the very small size of the tube inside the epididymis, recent advances in the surgical technique have made outcomes nearly as good as for vasovasostomy. You may need a combination of the two techniques, with a vasovasostomy done on one side and a vasoepididymostomy on the other side. Vasoepididymostomy usually requires a longer incision into the scrotum.

What can be expected after a vasectomy reversal?

Recovery from a vasectomy reversal should be relatively swift and fairly comfortable. Any pain that might be experienced after surgery can be controlled with oral medications. About 50 percent of men experience discomfort that is similar to the level they had after the original vasectomy. Another quarter report less pain than accompanied the vasectomy. A final 25 percent say the pain is somewhat greater than after the vasectormy. The reassuring news is that any pain severe enough to require medication rarely lasts longer than a few days to a week.

Most patients are back to normal routine and light work within a week. Urologists usually want their patients to refrain from heavy physical activity for about four weeks. If your job requires strenuous work, you should discuss with your surgeon the earliest time you can return to work. You will be advised to wear a jockstrap for support for several weeks. You will also be restricted from having sex for at least two weeks.

It takes on average one year to achieve a pregnancy after a vasectomy reversal. Some pregnancies occur in the first few months after the reversal procedure, while others do not occur until several years later.

One of the main factors influencing pregnancy rates is the obstructive interval, which is the duration of time between your original vasectomy and the reversal. As the table below shows, rates of both the return of sperm to semen and subsequent pregnancy are highest when the reversal is performed relatively shortly after the vasectomy.

The urologist will request a semen analysis every two to three months after surgery until your sperm count either stabilizes or pregnancy occurs. Unless a pregnancy occurs, a sperm count is the only way to determine surgical success. While sperm generally appear in the semen within a few months after a vasovasostomy, it may take from three to 15 months to appear after a vasoepididymostomy.

In either case, if the reversal works, the patient should remain fertile for many years. The possibility of subsequent pregnancies is an important advantage of this procedure over sperm retrieval techniques for in vitro fertilization (see frequently asked questions). Only approximately 5 percent of patients who have sperm appear in the semen after a vasectomy reversal later develop scarring in the reconnected area, which could block the passage of sperm again.

Who performs vasectomy reversals?

Urologists are the surgical specialists who most frequently perform vasectomy reversals. Since not everyone focuses on this procedure, make sure to ask your urologist how many he or she has done — and to what level of success. Also, if your urologist recommends a microsurgical approach, you have the right to ask about his or her experience and success rates with this technique especially since this is a technique that requires additional training.

Can all vasectomies be reversed?

Almost all vasectomies can be reversed. However, if the vasectomy was performed during the repair of a hernia in the groin, there may be more difficulty reconnecting the ends of the vas. Rarely, reconnection of the ends of the vas is not possible because such a long segment of the vas was removed during the vasectomy procedure.

Should I have a vasovasostomy or a vasoepididymostomy?

It is not possible to determine before the reversal operation which procedure will be best for you. The urologist necessarily must determine this during the vasectomy reversal procedure. If sperm are present in the fluid that is obtained from the end of the vas that is connected to the testicle, then a vasovasostomy is performed. If sperm are absent from the fluid obtained from the end of the vas that is connected to the testicle, the urologist then uses several criteria to determine which operation is best for you. The urologist will inspect the epididymis to determine if a blockage is present in the tube within the epididymis. If a blockage is seen, then a vasoepididymostomy will be required.

If no blockage is apparent, then the appearance of the fluid that is obtained from the end of the vas connected to the testicle may help determine which operation is best for you. In general, watery appearing fluid influences the urologist to perform vasovasostomy even though sperm are not present in the fluid, while creamy appearing fluid suggests that vasoepididymostomy is required when sperm are not present in the fluid. Several other factors also may be considered to help the urologist determine which operation is best for you. Some patients may require a vasovasostomy on one side and a vasoepididymostomy on the other side.

Is age a factor in conceiving after a vasectomy reversal?

Your age should not influence the result of your vasectomy reversal. Most men continue to produce sperm from their testicles for many years after their partners have entered menopause and are no longer ovulating, or producing eggs. In fact, a woman’s fertility starts declining in her mid-30s, with significant impairment beginning around age 37.

If female age is a factor, your partner should check with her gynecologist to see if she is still ovulating before you agree to a reversal. Abnormal results from a simple blood test to measure hormone levels on the third day of menstruation indicate a significantly lowered chance of fertility. But do not be deceived by a normal reading. It does not always guarantee that she will be able to get pregnant.

Are there alternatives to vasectomy reversal?

Yes. Your doctor can obtain sperm from the testicle or epididymis by either a needle aspiration or surgery. But the sperm are not useful for simple, inexpensive office artificial inseminations. Instead, the sperm that are obtained by such methods require the more complex, expensive ($10,000 to $15,000) in vitro fertilization (IVF) techniques using intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI).

Most centers report a 30 percent to 35 percent pregnancy rate each time IVF with ICSI is performed if the female partner is younger than 37, but much lower rates if she is older. Since studies consistently show that vasectomy reversals are more cost-effective in achieving pregnancy than obtaining sperm for IVF with ICSI, your better option is with the reversal.

If a vasectomy reversal fails, should I consider a repeat reversal?

The success rates for repeat reversals are generally 8 percent to 10 percent lower than for first reversals. In making a recommendation, your urologist will review the record of your previous procedure. If sperm were present in fluid obtained from the lower end of the vas during that operation, he or she will probably perform a repeat vasovasostomy, a less complicated procedure than a vasoepididymostomy, but more likely to produce success.

How expensive is a vasectomy reversal?

Costs vary widely, ranging between about $10,000 and $12,000 for surgical fees, not including anesthesia and surgical center fees. Most insurance companies do not pay for this procedure. Therefore, you should discuss the finances of your operation early to see if your insurance company might be the exception to the rule.

Will a vasectomy reversal relieve pain in the testicle that developed after my vasectomy?

It is fortunate that only a very small percentage of men develop pain in the testicle after a vasectomy that is sufficiently severe for them to inquire about a vasectomy reversal to relieve pain. Because such situations are rare, there are few reports of groups of patients who undergo vasectomy reversals to relieve pain in the testicle. Most of these reports indicate that the majority of patients who undergo a vasectomy reversal for relief of pain in the testicles indeed are relieved of their pain. However, your urologist cannot determine in advance that your pain definitely will be relieved if you undergo a reversal.

The decision to proceed with a vasectomy is a very personal one. So it is important that you have a clear understanding of what a vasectomy is and what it is not. The following will provide you with information that will assist you in deciding whether or not a vasectomy is an appropriate form of contraception for you.

What happens under normal conditions?
The testicles produce sperm and testosterone and are located in the scrotum at the base of the penis. Once produced, the sperm exit the testicle through a delicate, coiled tube called the epididymis, where they stay until they are fully matured. Each epididymis is connected to the prostate by a tube called the vas deferens. This muscular tube generally extends from the lower portion of the scrotum into the inguinal canal (site of most hernias) and then into the pelvis continuing behind the bladder. It is at this point that the vas deferens joins with the seminal vesicle and forms the ejaculatory duct. During ejaculation, seminal fluid and seminal vesicles mixes with sperm to form semen which is expelled through the urethra.

What is a vasectomy?
A vasectomy is a minor surgical procedure designed to interrupt the sperm transportation system between the testicle and the urethra by blocking the vasa deferentia.

How is a vasectomy performed?
In general, vasectomies are performed in the urologist’s office. However, the procedure may be done at an ambulatory surgery center or in a hospital setting if the patient and urologist have determined that intravenous sedation is preferable. The decision to proceed in that type of setting may be based upon the patient’s anatomy, anxiety or the need for associated surgical procedures.

On the day of the procedure, the patient will be asked to sign a surgical consent form. Certain states have regulations regarding the type and timing of the surgical consent for permanent sterilization.

Once the patient has signed the consent form and has been brought into the procedure room, his scrotal area will be shaved. Some urologists will have the patient shave this area at home. The area will then be washed with an antiseptic solution. Local anesthesia will be injected to numb the area but the patient will be aware of touch, tension and movement during the procedure. However, the local anesthetic should eliminate any sharp pain. The patient is awake during the procedure so, if necessary, he can let the urologist know if he is experiencing pain so more local anesthesia can be given.

With a conventional vasectomy, a urologist makes one or two small cuts in the skin of the scrotum to access the vas deferens. The vas deferens is cut, and a small piece may be removed leaving a short gap between the two remaining ends. Next, the urologist may cauterize the lumen or ends of the vas, then ties the cut ends with suture material. The scrotal incisions may be closed with dissolvable stitches or allowed to close on its own. The entire procedure is then repeated on the other side either through the same initial incision or through a second scrotal incision.

During a no-scalpel vasectomy, the urologist feels for the vas under the skin of the scrotum and holds it in place with a small clamp. A special instrument is then used to make a tiny puncture in the skin and stretch the opening so the vas deferens can gently be lifted out, cut, then tied or cauterized and put back in place.

What should the patient expect after a vasectomy?
Your urologist should provide you with specific recommendations for your care after a vasectomy. It is generally wise to return home immediately after the procedure and avoid strenuous or sexual activity. Swelling and discomfort can be minimized by placing an ice pack on the scrotum and by wearing a supportive undergarment, such as a jockstrap. Most patients can expect to recover completely in less than a week and many are able to return to their job as early as a day after the procedure. Sexual activity can usually be resumed within a week following a vasectomy. However, it is important that all patients recognize that a vasectomy, even though successful, is not effective immediately. The effectiveness of the vasectomy must be proven by having the patient submit at least one semen analysis , which demonstrates that there are no sperm in the ejaculate. The time until disappearance of sperm from the ejaculate varies from patient to patient. Most urologists do not recommend checking the semen for sperm for at least three months or 20 ejaculates, whichever comes first. If sperm continue to be present in the ejaculate, that patient must continue to use contraception. After waiting for three months or 20 ejaculates, one in five men will still have sperm in their ejaculate, and will need to wait longer for the sperm to clear. The patient should not assume that his vasectomy is effective until his semen analysis demonstrates the absence of sperm.

Are there any risks associated with a vasectomy?
In the immediate postoperative period there is the risk of bleeding into the scrotum. If the patient notices a significant increase in the size of his scrotum or significant scrotal discomfort, he should contact his urologist immediately. A patient experiencing fever, scrotal redness or tenderness should also be evaluated by the surgeon as this may indicate an infection. Discomfort is usually minimal and should respond to mild analgesics. More severe pain may indicate infection or other complications. Patients will often complain of mild lower abdominal discomfort similar to what one would experience from getting hit in the genitalia. A benign lump, or granuloma, may develop because there is a leakage of sperm from the cut end of the vas into the scrotal tissues. It may occasionally be painful or sensitive to touch or pressure.

Post-vasectomy pain syndrome is a chronic pain syndrome that follows vasectomy. The cause of this syndrome and its incidence are unclear. It is generally treated with anti-inflammatory agents. Occasionally, patients will elect to undergo vasectomy reversal in an attempt to alleviate this syndrome. Unfortunately, the response to surgical intervention is unpredictable. There has been some debate in the past as to whether vasectomies predispose a man to any future health problems. However, there is no conclusive evidence that men who have undergone a vasectomy have a higher risk of cardiovascular disease, prostate cancer, testicular cancer or other health problems.

Can my partner tell if I have had a vasectomy?
There is no significant change in one’s ejaculate after a vasectomy since the sperm contributes a small amount to the overall ejaculate volume. Your partner may on occasion be able to feel the vasectomy site. This is particularly true if you have developed a granuloma.

Will my sense of orgasm be altered by having a vasectomy?
Ejaculation and orgasm are generally not affected by vasectomy. The only exception to this is the occasional patient who has developed post-vasectomy pain syndrome.

Can I become impotent after a vasectomy?
An uncomplicated vasectomy cannot cause impotence.

Can a vasectomy fail?
First, it is important to be certain that a vasectomy has been successful and that all sperm are absent from the ejaculate prior to stopping other forms of contraception. Even if the vasectomy has been demonstrated to be effective, there is a small chance that a vasectomy may fail. This occurs as a result of sperm leaking from one end of the cut vas deferens (the testicular end) and finding a channel to the other end (the abdominal end).

Can something happen to my testicles?
Rarely, the testicles may be injured during a vasectomy as a result of injury to the testicular artery. Other complications such as a mass of blood (hematoma) or infection may also affect the testicles.

Can I have children after my vasectomy?
Yes, but if you have not stored frozen sperm, you will require an additional procedure. The vas deferens can be microsurgically reconnected (in a procedure called a vasectomy reversal) to allow normal conception to occur. Alternatively, sperm can be extracted from the testicle or the epididymis and utilized for in vitro fertilization. These procedures are costly and may or may not be covered by insurance. Additionally, they are not successful 100 percent of the time. Therefore, one should carefully consider nonsurgical alternatives for contraception prior to deciding to proceed with a vasectomy.

The male reproductive tract is responsible for the production, maturation of sperm, and delivery of sperm. This tract is a complex and highly integrated entity. Sperm are produced in the testicles and then are transported through the genital duct system to the penis and out of the urethra during ejaculation. Each component of the reproductive tract is highly specialized.

Abnormalities within the male reproductive tract may appear as scrotal masses. Masses may be of little significance or may represent life-threatening illnesses. It is necessary to follow a set course of action to determine the nature of the masses and the most appropriate treatment option. For example, testicular cancer is a source of great concern and uniformly requires prompt intervention. Other masses, such as varicoceles, can cause pain or impair reproductive function. Thus, it is important for a patient to seek prompt medical attention when he identifies a scrotal mass or abnormality while performing a testicular self examination. The following information will assist you when talking to a urologist about varicoceles.

What are varicoceles?
The spermatic cord is the structure that provides the blood supply to the testicle and contains the vas deferens which transports sperm from the testicle to the penis and urethra. The spermatic cord passes through the inguinal canal and continues into the scrotum. The pampiniform plexus is a group of interconnected veins, which drain the blood from the testicles and lies within the spermatic cord. The pampiniform plexus is believed to have an important functional role in maintaining testicular temperature in the appropriate range for sperm production. The pampiniform plexus cools blood in the testicular artery before it enters the testicles, helping to maintain an ideal testicular temperature, essential for optimal sperm production.

Varicoceles are abnormal enlargements (dilations) of the pampiniform plexus of veins within the scrotum. They are similar to varicose veins of the leg, and often form during puberty. They can become larger and thus more noticeable with time. Left-sided varicoceles are more common than right-sided varicoceles, likely due to anatomical differences between the two sides.

What can cause varicoceles?
Several causes of varicoceles have been suggested. Incompetent or absent valves within the gonadal or spermatic veins may lead to pooling of blood and the abnormal enlargement in the pampiniform plexus of veins. Additionally, the angle at which the gonadal vein enters the renal (kidney) vein may produce relatively high pressure within this venous system, leading to the swelling (dilation) of the pampiniform plexus. This explains why varicoceles are more common on the left side since the gonadal vein on the left side enters the renal vein. The right gonadal vein is not as long and does not join with the right venal vein. Rarely, enlarged lymph nodes or other abnormal masses in the retroperitoneum (the space behind the abdominal cavity) will block the gonadal veins, leading to increased pampiniform venous pressure and varicocele formation. This mechanism is only of concern when one develops a new varicocele.

How common are varicoceles?
Varicoceles are present in an estimated 15 percent of all men, whereas approximately 40 percent of men undergoing evaluation for infertility are diagnosed with this condition. No racial or ethnic groups are known to be at higher risk for development of a varicocele.

What are the symptoms of varicoceles?
Most men diagnosed with a varicocele have no symptoms, but varicoceles are important for several reasons. Varicoceles are thought to cause infertility and testicular atrophy (shrinkage). Approximately 40 percent of cases of primary male infertility and 80 percent of cases of secondary male infertility are believed to be due to varicoceles. Varicoceles rarely cause pain. When pain is present, it can vary from a dull, heavy discomfort to a sharp pain. The associated symptoms may increase with sitting, standing or physical exertion – particularly if any one of these activities occurs over long periods of time. Symptoms often progress over the course of the day, and they are typically relieved when the patient lies on his back, allowing improved drainage of the veins of the pampiniform plexus.

How are varicoceles diagnosed?
Large varicoceles can be discovered through self-examination. They may look or feel like a mass in the scrotum, and they have been described as having a “bag of worms” both because of their appearance and the way they feel. Asymptomatic varicoceles are often diagnosed on physical examination at the time of routine medical evaluation. Physicians typically diagnose varicoceles with the patient in the standing position. The patient may be asked to take in a deep breath, hold it, and bear down while the physician feels the scrotum above the testicle. This technique, known as the Valsalva maneuver, assists the physician in detecting abnormal enlargement or increased fullness of the pampiniform plexus of veins. A physician may order a scrotal ultrasound test to help make the diagnosis, particularly if the physical examination is difficult or inconclusive. Radiographic hallmarks of varicoceles on scrotal ultrasonography are veins greater than three millimeters in size with reversal of blood flow within the veins of the pampiniform plexus during the Valsalva maneuver. However, most varicoceles are diagnosed in most patients on the basis of physical examination alone. Most physicians do not believe that ultrasonography should be utilized to identify small or subclinical varicoceles since several studies have shown that “subclinical” varicoceles – those detected on the basis of ultrasound or other radiographic study alone – are usually not clinically relevant. Thus, routine radiographic screening for varicoceles in the absence of physical findings is not encouraged.

What are the treatment options for varicoceles?
Treatment of varicoceles is an appropriate consideration in some patients with infertility, pain or testicular atrophy. No medical therapies are available for either treatment or prevention; however analgesic agents may alleviate associated pain when present.

There are two main approaches to the treatment of a varicocele:

Surgical Repair: This approach involves a variety of specific techniques, but all involve ligation (obstructing) the spermatic or gonadal veins thus interrupting blood flow in the vessels of the pampiniform plexus. The surgical approaches include open surgical repairs performed through a single incision with or without the use of optical magnification (e.g., magnifying glasses or loupes or an operating microscope). Laparoscopic varicocele repair which utilizes telescopes passed through the abdominal wall are not generally used since they are thought by most to have greater potential for serious complications than standard surgical techniques without significant advantage. The open procedures are performed under a variety of anesthetics, from local to general anesthesia, whereas the laparoscopic approach is uniformly performed under a general anesthetic agent. With the advent of smaller incisions, which avoid muscle transection, the open procedures are becoming closer to the laparoscopic techniques in both speed of recovery and postoperative pain. Complications resulting from either open or laparoscopic approaches are rare, but include varicocele persistence/recurrence, hydrocele formation and injury to the testicular artery.

Percutaneous Embolization: This procedure is performed by radiologists using a special tube that is inserted into a vein in either the groin or neck. After radiographic visualization of the enlarged veins of the pampiniform plexus, coils or balloons are released to create an obstruction (blockage) in the veins. This obstruction then typically leads to interruption of blood flow within the pampiniform plexus vessels and disappearance of the varicocele. Percutaneous embolization is typically performed with intravenous sedation anesthesia and usually takes several hours to complete. Complications may include varicocele persistence/recurrence, coil migration and complications at the venous access site. This has not been widely employed in most centers.

What can be expected after treatment?
Recovery time after surgical repair is usually rapid. Pain is usually mild, and patients are asked to avoid strenuous activity for 10 to 14 days. Office work can typically be done one to two days after surgery. A follow-up visit with the urologist is scheduled. A follow-up semen analysis is obtained three to four months later if the procedure was performed to treat associated infertility. Open procedures performed with optical magnification have a low recurrence rate of approximately one percent.

Recovery time after embolization is also relatively short. Again, pain is typically mild, and patients are asked to avoid strenuous physical activity for seven to 10 days after the procedure. Patients may return to office work one to two days postoperatively. The recurrence rate with embolization is generally thought to be higher than that achievable with optical magnification. Nevertheless, there are circumstances when embolization may be preferable.

The impact of varicocele correction on fertility is not entirely clear. Some studies demonstrate improvement in fertility after varicocele repair, while other studies fail to document this change. Semen quality is improved in approximately 60 percent of infertile men undergoing correction of a varicocele, and this treatment should be considered in the context of other available treatment options as couples pursue therapy.

What will happen if I choose to observe my varicocele, rather than undergo treatment?
Failure to treat a varicocele may result in testicular atrophy and/or a decline in semen quality. This may lead to infertility. The varicocele may, over time, lead to permanent, irreversible testicular injury.

I have pain with my varicocele. What can I do to help alleviate the pain?
The use of adequate scrotal support (e.g., athletic supporter, briefs style underwear, etc.) can help the pain associated with a varicocele. Lying on your back facilitates varicocele drainage and often improves episodic discomfort as well. Use of analgesic agents (e.g., acetaminophen, ibuprofen, etc.) may be of benefit in treating the pain associated with a varicocele. Additionally, many patients obtain lasting relief of symptoms with varicocele correction through the above-mentioned techniques.

I am considering having my varicocele corrected for fertility reasons. How long will I have to wait to see improvement in semen parameters?
Semen analyses are typically obtained at three to four month intervals after the procedure. Improvement is often seen within six months, but may not be observed until one year postoperatively.

My adolescent son was recently diagnosed with a varicocele. Should this be corrected?
Indications for correction of a varicocele in an adolescent include disparity in testicular size, with the affected side measuring greater than 2 cm3 less in volume than the unaffected side. Additionally, correction is a consideration in patients with pain. Treatment of adolescents is highly individualized, and consultation with a urologist to further discuss the appropriateness of treatment for a particular patient is highly recommended. Often patients or families will choose to repair varicoceles to minimize the potential risk for future fertility or minimize the concerns about this complication.

I am interested in fertility and have no symptoms. Should I have my varicocele repaired?
Generally, asymptomatic varicoceles are not repaired. Most physicians do not believe there are health consequences of untreated asymptomatic varicoceles.

Sometimes, the tissue surrounding a testicle is not well attached to the scrotum. As a result, the testicle may become twisted around the spermatic cord resulting in the blood supply being cut off. The following information should help you better understand this potentially serious health hazard.

What happens under normal conditions?

The testicle (testis) receives its blood supply through the spermatic cord, which arises in the abdomen, courses through the inguinal canal and then enters the scrotum. This cord also includes the vas deferens, which transports sperm to the urethra. While there is more than one source of arterial blood to the testicle, they all enter the testicle via the spermatic cord. Interruption of this arterial route, therefore, will result in a complete cutoff of blood supply and demise of the testicle.

The testicles are organs suspended in a pouch-like skin sac — the scrotum — below the penis. By looking at the scrotum, both the right and left testicle should be approximately equal in size. An asymmetric enlargement, especially if acute, suggests an underlying pathologic condition on one side. Similarly, the skin color on both sides of the scrotum should be identical. Any change in color, especially redness or darkening, also suggests a problem. Finally, testicles are normally not painful and any pain or discomfort should alert the individual to seek medical attention, even if there is no swelling or skin color change.

What is testicular torsion?

Testicular torsion, or twisting of the testicle resulting in a strangulation of the blood supply, occurs in men whose tissue surrounding the testicle is not well attached to the scrotum. It is important to emphasize that testicular torsion is a medical emergency. The testicle will die (infarct) and diminish in size (atrophy) if the blood supply is not restored within approximately six hours. Restoration of the blood supply requires untwisting the cord (de-torsion).

Torsion is relatively rare, occurring in approximately one in 4,000 males under the age of 25.  However, it can also occur in newborns and in older men.

What causes testicular torsion?

In most individuals a testicle cannot twist because the surrounding tissue is well attached to the scrotum. The term “bell clapper” deformity is often used to describe a congenital condition in those individuals, whose testes hang within the scrotum and can “swing” like a bell clapper in a bell, allowing for easy twisting. It must be emphasized that boys and men born with the “bell clapper” deformity have no attachments around either testicle, so that torsion can potentially occur on either side. Bilateral testicular torsion, however, is an exceedingly rare event.

What are the symptoms of testicular torsion?

The hallmark of testicular torsion is sudden, severe, one-sided testicular pain. Torsion can occur at any time, while sitting or standing, or may awaken an individual from sleep. Physical activity does not cause torsion, but it may occur during sports or physical exercise. There is often associated nausea and vomiting. Slow-onset testicular pain, over several hours or days, can represent torsion, but it is less common. Problems with urination, such as burning or frequency, are not normally associated with torsion. Torsion is not a painless event, except perhaps in the newborn.

Early in the process, there may be no scrotal swelling. However very shortly thereafter, there will be swelling and redness of the scrotal skin. Testicles that have died (infarcted), after many hours of torsion, cause the greatest scrotal changes. The scrotum will be very tender, reddened and swollen. Often the individual will not be able to find a comfortable position.

How is testicular torsion diagnosed?

Clinical evaluation by the urologist, consisting of medical history and physical examination, is often sufficient to diagnose torsion. Time is of the essence, so if the urologist cannot exclude torsion or suspects it, surgical intervention must be undertaken without further delay. There are X-ray tests which may be used, especially in those individuals whose examination and history may not be characteristic. Both ultrasound and nuclear medicine techniques can be used to assess blood flow to the testicle, and therefore, can also exclude or confirm torsion.

How is testicular torsion treated?

Ultimately, all individuals with torsion require surgery. The testicle can at times be manually untwisted in the emergency room, but whether this is successful or not, surgery should follow. At surgery, the affected testicle will be untwisted and then sutures placed around both testicles to prevent future torsion. Most often this is performed through the scrotum, although an inguinal approach may be used. Unfortunately, there are individuals whose testicles cannot be saved, because it has already infarcted. This is determined at surgery. These individuals will undergo removal of the affected testicle at the time of surgery and then placement of sutures around the remaining opposite testicle to prevent future torsion.

The testicles of newborns with torsion can rarely be salvaged by untwisting, because they are almost always infarcted. Neonatal torsion is, therefore, not the same sort of surgical emergency as torsion in older boys and men. On the other hand, there have been instances of the other non-involved testicle twisting shortly after birth, leaving the baby with no testicles. In addition, there have been great improvements in pediatric anesthesia and postoperative care of even the smallest newborns. Many pediatric urologists will therefore take a newborn to surgery within the first few hours or days of life to remove the affected testicle and to place sutures around the opposite testicle to prevent future torsion.

What can be expected after treatment for testicular torsion?

Whether the testicle is removed or not, scrotal exploration results in minimal and short-lived discomfort. Oral pain medication may be necessary for a few days. Most surgeons will allow the patient to return to work or school within a few days to a week. However, strenuous physical activity or exercise might be best avoided for several weeks. The sutures that are placed around the testicles are not perceived by the patient and are not bothersome. It would be very rare for torsion to recur after the placement of fixation sutures. Patients and families should be wary of any testicular pain or swelling, however, especially if there is only one remaining testicle. In that case they should seek medical attention immediately.

If the torted testicle is left in place, it still might diminish in size slightly, since there may have been some permanent damage during the hours that the testicle was twisted. It is not possible to predict in whom this will happen, except that testicles torted for the longest time, in general, may have more size reduction. In addition, if one testicle is removed, the opposite testicle may increase in size to greater than normal, which is known as compensatory hypertrophy. Torsion of the testicle cannot be prevented by changes in activity or by taking medication. Only fixation sutures placed around the testis at surgery will prevent future torsion.

How will my future fertility be affected after the loss of a testicle?

Only one functioning testicle is necessary for normal fertility potential and full masculinization. A single testicle will produce normal amounts of sperm and testosterone. While there has been some experimental evidence to suggest that mechanisms might exist to diminish fertility in these patients, they do not appear to be clinically relevant in the vast majority of men who have had torsion.

How will my lifestyle be impacted if I have lost a testicle or have a weakened testicle?

Patients who have lost a testicle or who have a weakened testicle should remain cautious about the remaining testicle. They should always wear protection when engaging in contact sports. They should always seek medical attention if they have any discomfort or notice anything abnormal in the scrotum or remaining testicle.

Should I consider a testicular prosthesis?

Testicular prostheses are manufactured to replace a lost testicle. The products available include a solid, soft silicone polymer and a saline-filled silicone, which have not yet achieved full FDA approval. Most often, these prostheses are inserted when the individual is fully grown and through puberty. Placement of a smaller prosthesis in a younger boy would necessitate a second surgery to replace it with an adult sized prosthesis. Surgery for placement of a prosthetic testicle is not done at the time of removal of the infarcted testis, but may be performed some months later. The decision to place a prosthesis is highly personal and should be discussed with the urologist.

Can a newborn have testicular torsion?

Yes, although neonatal (newborn) testicular torsion is even more rare than torsion in older individuals. It is diagnosed right after birth, and may relate to prolonged or difficult labor. The torsion most often occurs prior to delivery. Its exact cause is unknown and location of the twisting of the spermatic cord is in a different location, as compared to older boys and men. They usually present with a hard scrotal mass, with some darkening of the scrotal skin. Unlike older patients, these infants most often are comfortable, without irritability. The vast majority of these testes cannot be salvaged and are already dead tissue when the baby is born.

What other torsions can occur?

Torsion of the appendix epididymis or testis deserves special mention, because in younger, prepubescent boys it is far more common than torsion of the testicle itself. This may occur in older boys and men, but is much less common in that age group. As in testicular torsion, there are no predisposing factors or activities that cause these structures to twist, and it can occur at any time. The testicular appendages are embryologic remnants that have no function in men. They are located at the upper pole of the testicle and epididymis. They have their own small blood supply and they can also twist, resulting in infarction. These individuals also present with scrotal pain, followed by swelling and redness. However, the pain is most often less severe and can gradually worsen over several hours or days. At times this diagnosis will be determined at the time of surgery, since the history and clinical findings are so similar to testicular torsion. At other times, the urologist may be able to make this diagnosis on physical examination or through the use of radiographic means, such as ultrasound or nuclear medicine scan. If the diagnosis is certain and testicular torsion is excluded, surgery might be avoided in those instances, since the pain and swelling will subside after several days. If there is any doubt at all, though, surgery will be suggested to rule out testicular torsion.

The male reproductive tract is responsible for the production, maturation of sperm, and delivery of sperm. This tract is a complex and highly integrated entity. Sperm are produced in the testicles and then are transported through the genital ductal system to the penis and out of the urethra during ejaculation. Each component of the reproductive tract is highly specialized.

Abnormalities within the male reproductive tract may appear as scrotal masses. Masses may be of little significance or may represent life-threatening illnesses. It is necessary to follow a set course of action to determine the nature of the masses and the most appropriate treatment option. For example, testicular cancer is a source of great concern and uniformly requires prompt intervention. Other masses, such as varicoceles, can cause pain or impair reproductive function. Spermatoceles are benign and generally painless masses that grow at the top of the testicle. Thus, it is important for a patient to seek prompt medical attention when he identifies a scrotal mass or abnormality while performing testicular self examination. The following information will assist you when talking to a urologist about spermatoceles.

What is a spermatoceles?
Spermatocele, also known as a spermatic cyst, are typically painless, noncancerous (benign) cysts that grow from the epididymis near the top of the testicle. Spermatoceles are typically smooth and they are usually filled with a milky or clear colored fluid containing sperm. Over time, spermatoceles may remain stable in size or they may grow. If in fact the size becomes bothersome, or results in pain, then there are several treatment options to rectify the problem. Spermatoceles are generally no more than a nuisance rather than a serious medical condition.

What can cause spermatoceles?
The precise cause of spermatoceles is not known. While spermatoceles may form as a result of trauma or inflammation, these conditions are certainly not required for spermatocele formation. Others suggest that blockage of the efferent ducts and epididymis result in spermatocele formation. Additionally, in utero exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES), a synthetic form of estrogen, has also been suggested as a possible cause.

How common are spermatoceles?
The precise incidence of spermatoceles is unknown, but an estimated 30 percent of all men have this condition. Incidence increases with age, with peak rates for the diagnosis of spermatoceles occurring in men in their forties and fifties. No racial or ethnic predispositions to spermatocele formation are known.

What are the symptoms of spermatoceles?
Men with spermatoceles usually have no symptoms. However, when associated symptoms are present, they may include scrotal heaviness and/or pain.

How are spermatoceles diagnosed?
Spermatoceles are typically discovered through a man’s self-examination of his testicles or at the time of an evaluation by a physician. Light can be shined through a spermatocele (transillumination), indicating that the mass is not a solid tumor but more likely a benign cyst. Ultrasound examination remains a very reliable means of evaluation and is a relatively quick, noninvasive and inexpensive test. Other diagnostic imaging tests are not generally used although magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can also be used as an adjunct in cases where scrotal ultrasound is inconclusive.

How are spermatoceles treated?
Since spermatoceles generally do not cause discomfort and often go unnoticed by patients, they rarely require treatment. Nevertheless, some affected individuals do experience significant associated symptoms, such as bothersome size or pain. When intervention is indicated, the available treatment options include:

Medical therapy: Oral analgesics or anti-inflammatory agents may be used to relieve pain associated with symptomatic spermatoceles. No other type of medical therapy is specifically indicated for the treatment of spermatoceles.

Surgical therapy: Spermatocelectomy involves surgical removal of the spermatocele from the adjoining epididymal tissue. The overall goal of surgical therapy is removal of the spermatocele with preservation of the continuity of the male reproductive tract.

Other therapies: Aspiration and sclerotherapy are two less commonly utilized approaches to treat spermatoceles. Aspiration involves puncture of the spermatocele with a needle and withdrawal of its contents into a syringe. Sclerotherapy is performed with subsequent injection of an irritating agent directly into the spermatocele sac to cause it to heal or scar closed, removing the spermatocele space and decreasing the odds of fluid reaccumulation. Although several reports describe the effectiveness and tolerability of these treatment options, they are generally not recommended. Spermatocele recurrence is a common complication with both approaches, and chemical epididymitis and pain are common complications with sclerotherapy. Furthermore, aspiration and sclerotherapy have limited applicability in men of reproductive age, due to the significant risk of epididymal damage potentially leading to obstruction and resultant subfertility.

What can be expected after surgical treatment?
Spermatocelectomy is typically performed as an outpatient procedure, under a variety of possible anesthetic agents. Patients are generally discharged home with a pressure dressing consisting of an athletic supporter filled with fluffy gauze. Ice packs are applied for two to three days to minimize swelling. Oral pain medications are generally used for one to two days postoperatively. Patients may shower 24 to 48 hours after surgery, and a follow-up visit is scheduled for one to two weeks after the procedure.

Potential complications of spermatocelectomy include fever, infection, bleeding (scrotal hematoma) and persistent pain. Furthermore, inadvertent epididymal obstruction may result, which can lead to subfertility or infertility. Therefore, intervention should be avoided in men who still desire children. These complications may potentially be minimized by use of meticulous surgical technique (including use of an operating microscope or optical magnification).

Do spermatoceles lead to testicular cancer?
Spermatoceles are benign epididymal lesions. They are separate and distinct from the testicle. Patients with spermatoceles do not have an identified increased risk of testicular cancer.

Are any medications available to cure my spermatocele or prevent the formation of additional ones?
Medications are available to treat associated discomfort or pain, but no medication will lead to resolution or prevention of spermatoceles.

How often should I perform scrotal self-exams?
These exams should be performed at least once per month. Your physician can instruct you in the specific technique. If you detect any suspicious changes, such as increasing size or unusual firmness of scrotal structures, contact your physician.

Premature ejaculation (PE), is also known as rapid ejaculation, premature climax, or early ejaculation. In the United States, PE affects about one in five men ages 18 to 59. Although the problem is often assumed to be psychological, biology also may play a role.

How does ejaculation occur?

Ejaculation, controlled by the central nervous system, happens when sexual stimulation and friction provide impulses that are delivered to the spinal cord and into the brain.

Ejaculation has two phases:

Phase I: Emission
The vas deferens (the tubes that store and transport sperm from the testes) contract to squeeze the sperm toward the base of the penis through the prostate gland. The seminal vesicles release secretions that combine with the sperm to make semen. The ejaculation is unstoppable at this stage.

Phase II: Ejaculation
The muscles at the base of the penis contract forcing semen out of the penis (ejaculation and orgasm) while the bladder neck contracts. Orgasm can occur without the delivery of semen (ejaculation) from the penis. Normally, erections are lost following ejaculation.

Phase II: Ejaculation
The muscles at the base of the penis contract forcing semen out of the penis (ejaculation and orgasm) while the bladder neck contracts. Orgasm can occur without the delivery of semen (ejaculation) from the penis. Normally, erections are lost following ejaculation.

What is premature ejaculation?

Premature ejaculation (PE) is characterized by a lack of voluntary control over ejaculation. Many men occasionally ejaculate sooner than they or their partner would like during sexual activities. PE is a frustrating problem that can reduce the enjoyment of sex, harm relationships and affect quality of life. Occasional instances of PE might not be cause for concern. However, when the problem occurs frequently and causes distress to the man or his partner, treatment may be of benefit.

What causes premature ejaculation?

Although the exact cause of premature ejaculation (PE) is not known, new studies suggest that serotonin, a natural substance produced by nerves, is important. A breakdown of the actions of serotonin in the brain may be a cause. Studies have found that high amounts of serotonin in the brain slow the time to ejaculation while low amounts of serotonin can produce a condition like PE.

Psychological factors also commonly contribute to PE. Temporary depression, stress, unrealistic expectations about performance, a history of sexual repression, or an overall lack of confidence can cause PE. Interpersonal dynamics may contribute to sexual function. PE can be caused by a lack of communication between partners, hurt feelings, or unresolved conflicts that interfere with the ability to achieve emotional intimacy.

Can premature ejaculation develop later in life?

Premature ejaculation (PE) can occur at any age. Surprisingly, aging appears not to be a cause of PE. However, the aging process typically causes changes in erectile function and ejaculation. Erections may not be as firm or as large. Erections may be maintained for a shorter period before ejaculating. The feeling that an ejaculation is about to happen may be shorter. These factors can result in an older man having an ejaculation earlier than when he was younger.

Can both premature ejaculation and erectile dysfunction affect a man at the same time?

Sometimes premature ejaculation (PE) may be a problem in men who have erectile dysfunction (ED)—the inability to achieve and/or maintain an erection sufficient for satisfactory sexual performance. Some men do not understand that the loss of erection normally occurs after ejaculation and may wrongly complain to their doctor that they have ED when the actual problem is PE. It is recommended that the ED be treated first if you experience both ED and PE, since the PE may resolve on its own once the ED has been adequately treated.

When should a doctor be seen?

When premature ejaculation (PE) happens so frequently that it interferes with your sexual pleasure, it becomes a medical problem requiring the care of a doctor. To understand the problem, the doctor will need to ask questions about your sexual history such as the following:

• How often does the PE occur?
• How long have you had this problem?
• Is the problem specific to one partner? Or does it happen with every partner?
• Does PE occur with all or just some attempts at sexual relations?
• How much stimulation results in PE?
• What type of sexual activity (i.e., foreplay, masturbation, intercourse, use of visual clues, etc.) is engaged in and how often?
• How has PE affected sexual activity?
• What is the quality of your personal relationships?
• How does PE affect your quality of life?
• Are there any factors that make PE worse or better (i.e., drugs, alcohol, etc.)?

Usually, laboratory testing is not necessary unless the history and a physical examination reveal something more complicated.

How to talk to your partner about premature ejaculation?

Premature ejaculation (PE) affects not only you but also your partner and your sexual relationship. In an episode of PE, the intimacy shared with a partner suddenly comes to a quick end. You might feel angry, ashamed, and frustrated, and turn away from your partner. At the same time, your partner may be upset with the rapid emotional change, or the outcome of the sexual encounter.

Communication is not only important to successful diagnosis and treatment, but can also help a partner understand the feelings of the individual. Sometimes couple counseling or sex therapy may be useful. Together a couple might develop techniques (for example, the squeeze technique) that may prolong an erection. Most importantly, the couple should try to relax. Anxiety (especially performance anxiety) only makes this condition worse.

What treatments are available?

There are several treatment choices for premature ejaculation: psychological therapy, behavioral therapy and medications. Be sure to discuss these treatments with your doctor and together decide which of the following options is best for you:

• Psychological therapy addresses feelings a man may have about sexuality and sexual relationships.
• Behavioral therapy makes use of exercises to help a man develop tolerance to stimulation and, as a result, delay ejaculation.
• Medical therapy includes medications that are commonly used to treat depression. In addition, topical anesthetic creams may be used.

Psychological therapies

Psychological therapy can be used as the only treatment or can be used together with medical therapy or behavioral therapy. The focus of psychological therapy is to help you to identify and solve any difficulties in your relationships that may have added to the cause of premature ejaculation (PE). This therapy can also help couples to talk about problems with intimacy that occurred after PE began. Psychological therapy can also help a man learn to be less anxious about his sexual performance and have greater sexual confidence. Typically, a man will receive specific advice on how to enhance his and his partner’s sexual satisfaction.

Behavioral therapies

Behavioral therapy can play a key part in the usual treatment of premature ejaculation. Exercises are effective; however, they may not always provide a lasting solution to the problem. Also, they rely heavily on the cooperation of the partner, which in some cases, may be a problem.

With the squeeze method, an exercise developed by Masters and Johnson, the partner stimulates the man’s penis until he is close to ejaculation. At the point when he is about to ejaculate, the partner squeezes the penis hard enough to make him partially lose his erection. The goal of this technique is to teach the man to become aware of the sensations leading up to orgasm, and then begin to control and delay his orgasm on his own.

With the stop-start method, the partner stimulates the man’s penis until just before ejaculation. The partner should then stop all stimulation until the urge to ejaculate subsides. As the man regains control, he instructs the partner to begin stimulating his penis again. This procedure is repeated three times before allowing the man to ejaculate on the fourth time. The couple repeats this exercise three times a week, until the man has gained good control.

Medical therapies

Although not approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for this purpose, drugs used for depression and anesthetic creams have been shown to delay ejaculation in men with premature ejaculation (PE).

Medications are a relatively new form of treatment for PE. Doctors first noticed that men and women who were taking drugs for the treatment of depression (antidepressants) also had delayed orgasms. Doctors then began to use these drugs “off-label” (this implies using a medication for a different illness than what it was originally manufactured for) to treat PE. These medications include antidepressants that affect serotonin such as fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline and clomipramine.

If one medication fails to work, a second one is usually recommended. If the second one fails, trying a third medication will not likely be beneficial. An alternative is to combine medication with behavioral therapy and/or creams.

For use in PE, the doses of antidepressants are usually lower than those recommended for the treatment of depression. Common side effects of antidepressants can include nausea, dry mouth, drowsiness and reduced desire for sexual activity.

These drugs can be taken either every day or only taken before sexual activity. Your doctor will decide how you should take the medication based on the frequency of intercourse. The best time for taking the antidepressant medications before sexual activity has not been established, but most doctors will recommend from two to six hours depending on the medication. Because PE can recur when the medication is not taken, you most likely will need to take it on a continuing basis.

Local anesthetic creams can be used to treat PE. These creams are applied to the head of the penis about 20 to 30 minutes before intercourse to lessen the sensitivity. Prior to sexual intercourse, a condom (if used) may be removed and the penis washed clean of any remaining cream. A loss of erection can occur if the anesthetic cream is left on the penis for a longer period of time than recommended. Also, the anesthetic cream should not be left on the exposed penis during vaginal intercourse since it may cause vaginal numbness.

See your urologist for evaluation and treatment for the biological aspects of premature ejaculation.

As the channel for semen and urine, the penis serves two important functions in men. But a disease described as early as the mid-18th century by a French physician, Francois Gigot de la Peyronie, which causes hardened patches on the penile shaft, can severely impact a man’s sexual performance. If you have pain and penile curvature characteristic of Peyronie’s disease, the following information should help you understand your condition.

What happens under normal conditions?

The penis is a cylindrical organ consisting of three chambers: paired corpora cavernosa (Two cylinder-shaped bodies that lie side by side in the penis and that, when filled with blood, enlarge to cause the penis to swell and become erect.) that are surrounded by a protective tunica albuginea (The hard covering that covers the testicle.); a dense, elastic membrane or sheath (A tubular covering that protects some body parts.) under the skin; and the corpus spongiosum (A column of erectile tissue in the center of the penis and surrounding the urethra. When filled with blood it enlarges and causes the penis to swell and become erect.), a singular channel, located centrally beneath and surrounded by a thinner connective tissue sheath. It contains the urethra, the narrow tube that carries urine and semen out of the body.

These three chambers are made up of highly specialized, sponge-like erectile tissue filled with thousands of venous cavities, spaces that remain relatively empty of blood when the penis is soft. But during erection, blood fills the cavities, causing the corpora cavernosa to balloon and push against the tunica albuginea. While the penis hardens and stretches, the skin remains loose and elastic to accommodate the changes.

What is Peyronie’s disease?

Peyronie’s disease (also known as fibrous cavernositis) is an acquired inflammatory (Characterized or caused by swelling, redness, heat and/or pain produced in an area of the body as a result of irritation, injury or infection.) condition of the penis.  It is the formation of a plaque or hardened scar tissue beneath the skin of the penis. This scarring is non-cancerous, but often leads to painful erection and curvature of the erect penis (a “crooked penis”).

What are the symptoms of Peyronie’s disease?

This scarring, or plaque, typically develops on the upper side of the penis (dorsum). It reduces the elasticity of the tunica albuginea (The hard covering that covers the testicle.) in that area and, as a result, causes the penis to bend upward during an erection. Although Peyronie’s plaque is most commonly located on the top of the penis, it may occur on the underside or on the lateral side of the penis, causing a downward or lateral bend.  Some patients may even develop a plaque that goes all the way around the penis, causing a “waisting” or “bottleneck” deformity of the penile shaft. The majority of patients complain of generalized shrinkage or shortening of their penis.

Painful erections and difficulty with intercourse usually lead men with Peyronie’s disease to seek medical help. Since there is great variability in this condition, sufferers may complain of any combination of symptoms: Penile curvature, obvious penile plaques, painful erection and diminished ability to achieve an erection.

Any of those physical deformities make Peyronie’s disease a quality-of-life issue. Not surprising, it is linked to erectile dysfunction in 20 to 40 percent of sufferers. While studies have shown that 77 percent of men demonstrate significant psychological effects, the numbers, medical researchers believe, are under reported. Instead, many men affected with this truly devastating condition suffer in silence.

How frequently does Peyronie’s disease occur?

Peyronie’s disease affects a reported one to 3.7 percent  (about one to four in 100) of males between ages 40 and 70, even though severe cases have been reported in younger men. Medical researchers believe the actual prevalence may be higher due to patient embarrassment and limited reporting by physicians. Since the introduction of sildenafil citrate, an oral therapy for impotence, doctors have reported increased incidence of Peyronie’s cases. With more men being treated successfully for erectile dysfunction in the future, an increasing number of cases presenting to urologists are anticipated.

What causes Peyronie’s disease?

Ever since Francois Gigot de la Peyronie, personal physician to King Louis XV, first reported penile curvature in 1743, scientists have been mystified by the causes of this well-recognized disorder. Yet medical researchers have speculated on a variety of factors that might be at work.

Most experts believe that acute or short-term cases of Peyronie’s disease are likely the consequence of a minor penile trauma, sometimes caused by sports injuries, but more often by vigorous sexual activity (e.g., the penis accidentally being jammed into a mattress). In injuring the tunica albuginea, that trauma triggers a cascade of inflammatory and cellular events resulting in the abnormal fibrosis (excess fibrous tissue), plaque and calcifications characteristic of this disease.

Such trauma, however, may not account for those Peyronie’s cases that begin slowly and become so severe that they require surgery. Researchers believe genetics or relationship with other connective tissue disorders may play a role. Studies already suggest that if you have a relative with Peyronie’s disease you have a greater risk of developing it yourself.

How is Peyronie’s disease diagnosed?

A physical examination is sufficient to diagnose curvature of the penis. The hard plaques can be felt with or without erection. It may be necessary to use injectable medications to induce an erection for proper evaluation of the penile curvature. The patient may also provide pictures of the erect penis for evaluation by the physician. Ultrasound of the penis may demonstrate the lesions in the penis but is not always necessary.

How is Peyronie’s disease treated?

Because Peyronie’s disease is a wound-healing disorder, changes are constantly occurring in the early stages. In fact, this disease can be classified into two stages: 1) an acute inflammatory phase persisting for six to 18 months during which men experience pain, slight penile curvature and nodule formations and 2) a chronic phase during which men develop a stable plaque, significant penile curvature and erectile dysfunction.

Occasionally the condition regresses spontaneously with symptoms resolving themselves. In fact, some studies show that approximately 13 percent of patients have complete resolution of their plaques within a year. There is no change in 40 percent of cases, with progression or worsening of symptoms in 40 to 45 percent. For these reasons, most physicians recommend a non-surgical approach for the first 12 months.

Conservative approaches:  Instead of requiring invasive diagnostic procedures or treatments, men who experience only small plaques, minimal penile curvature and no pain or sexual limitations, need only be reassured that the condition will not lead to malignancy or another chronic disease. Pharmaceutical agents have shown promise for early-stage disease but there are drawbacks. Because of a lack of controlled studies, scientists have yet to establish their true effectiveness. For instance:

• Oral vitamin E: It remains a popular treatment for early-stage disease because of its mild side effects and low cost. While uncontrolled studies as far back as 1948 demonstrated decreases in penile curvature and plaque size, investigation continues concerning its effectiveness.
• Potassium aminobenzoate: Recent controlled studies have shown that this B-complex substance popular in Central Europe yields some benefits. But it is somewhat expensive, requiring 24 pills each day for three to six months. It is also often associated with gastrointestinal issues, making compliance low.
• Tamoxifen: This non-steroidal, antiestrogen medication has been used in the treatment of desmoid tumors, a condition with properties similar to Peyronie’s disease. Researchers claim that inflammation and the production of scar tissue are inhibited. But early-stage disease studies in England have found only marginal improvement with tamoxifen. Like other research in this area, however, these studies include few patients, and no controls, objective improvement measures or long-term follow up.
• Colchicine: Another anti-inflammatory agent that decreases collagen development, colchicine has been shown to be slightly beneficial in a few small, uncontrolled studies. Unfortunately, up to 50 percent of patients develop gastrointestinal upset and must discontinue the drug early in treatment.

Injections:  Injecting a drug directly into the penile plaque is an attractive alternative to oral medications, which do not specifically target the lesion, or invasive surgical procedures, which carry the inherent risks of general anesthesia, bleeding and infection. Intralesional injection therapies introduce drugs directly into the plaque with a small needle after appropriate anesthesia. Because they offer a minimally invasive approach, these options are popular among men with either early phase disease or who are reluctant to have surgery. Yet their effectiveness is also under investigation. For instance:

•  Verapamil: Early uncontrolled studies demonstrated that this substance interferes with calcium, a factor shown by in vitro cattle connective tissue cell studies to support collagen transport. As such, intralesional verapamil reduced penile pain and curvature while improving sexual function. Other studies have concluded that it is a reasonable treatment in men with non-calcified plaques and penile angles of less than 30 degrees.
• Interferon: The use of these naturally-occurring antiviral, antiproliferative and anti-tumorigenic glycoproteins to treat Peyronie’s disease was born out of experiments demonstrating the antifibrotic effect on skin cells of two different disorders — keloids, overgrowth of collagenous scar tissue and scleroderma, a rare autoimmune disease affecting the body’s connective tissue. In addition to inhibiting proliferation of fibroblast cells, interferons, such as alpha-2b, also stimulate collagenase, which breaks down collagen and scar tissue. Several uncontrolled studies have demonstrated intralesional interferon’s effectiveness in reducing penile pain, curvature and plaque size while improving some sexual function. A current multi-institutional, placebo-controlled trial will hopefully answer many of the questions about intralesional therapy in the near future.

Other investigative therapies:  The medical literature is replete with reports on less invasive methods for treating Peyronie’s disease. But the effectiveness of treatments such as high-intensity focused ultrasound and radiation therapy, topical verapamil and iontophoresis, introducing soluble salt ions into the tissue via electric current, must still be investigated before these alternative therapies are considered clinically useful. Likewise, controlled studies using larger patient groups with longer follow ups are necessary to prove that the same high-energy shock waves used to break up kidney stones will have positive effects on Peyronie’s disease.

Surgery:  Surgery is reserved for men with severe disabling penile deformities that prevent satisfactory sexual intercourse. But, in most cases, it is not recommended for the first six to 12 months, until the plaque has stabilized. Since a spin-off of this disease is an abnormal blood supply to the penis, a vascular evaluation using vasoactive agents (drugs that cause erections by opening the vessels) is done prior to any surgery. A penile ultrasound if performed can also illustrate the anatomy of the deformity. The images allow the urologist to determine which patients are most likely to benefit from reconstructive procedures versus a penile prosthesis. The three surgical approaches include:

• Nesbit procedure: First described to correct congenital penile curvature by cutting a portion of tissue from the tunica albuginea and shortening the unaffected side of the penis, this procedure is used by many surgeons today for Peyronie’s disease. Variations on the approach include the plication technique, where sutured tucks are placed into the side of maximum curvature to shorten and straighten the penis and the corporoplasty technique, where a longitudinal or lengthwise incision is closed transversely to correct the curvature. Nesbit and its variations are simple to perform and involve limited risk. They are most beneficial in men with ample penile length and lesser degrees of curvatures. But they are not recommended in individuals with short penises or severe curvatures as this procedure is recognized to shorten the penis somewhat.
• Grafting procedures: defect with a When plaques are large and curvatures severe, the surgeon may choose to incise or cut out the hardened area and replace the tunicagraft material of some type. While the choice of materials depends on the doctor’s experience, preferences and what is available, some are more attractive than others. For instance:
  • Autograft tissue grafts: Taken from the patient’s body during surgery and thus less likely to cause an immunologic reaction, these materials usually require a second incision. They are also known to undergo postoperative contracture or tightening and scarring.
  • Synthetic inert substances: Materials such as Dacron^® mesh or GORE-TEX^® can cause significant fibrosis, a spreading of connective tissue cells. Occasionally palpated or felt by the patient, these grafts may cause more scarring.
  • Allografts or xenografts: Harvested human or animal tissues are the focus of most grafting material today These substances are uniformly strong, easy to work with and readily available because they are “off-the-shelf” in the operating room, so to speak. They act as scaffolds for the tunica albuginea tissue to grow over as the graft is naturally dissolved by the patient’s body.

• Penile prostheses: A penile prosthesis may be the only good option for Peyronie’s disease patients with significant erectile dysfunction and insufficient blood vessels verified by ultrasound. In most cases, implanting such a device alone will straighten the penis, correcting its rigidity. But when that does not work, the surgeon may manually “model” the organ, bending it against the plaque to break the deformity, or the surgeon may need to remove the plaque over the prosthesis and apply a graft to completely straighten the penis.

What can be expected after treatment for Peyronie’s disease?

Routinely, a light pressure dressing is applied for 24 to 48 hours after the surgery to prevent any accumulation of blood. The Foley catheter is removed after the patient recovers from anesthesia and most patients are discharged later the same day or the following morning. During the healing process, medications to counteract erections are usually prescribed. The patient is also asked to take antibiotics for seven to 10 days postoperatively to ward off infection, and analgesics for any discomfort. If patients have no penile pain or other complications, they can resume sexual intercourse in six to eight weeks.

Frequently asked questions:

What happens to the cells following penile trauma?

In theory, following any penile trauma, there is a release of growth factors and cytokines or daughter cells that activate fibroblasts, cells that produce connective tissue. They, in turn, cause abnormal collagen deposition or scarring, which damages the internal elastic framework of the penis. Similar wound-healing disorders are commonly seen in the practice of dermatology, with conditions such as keloids and hypertrophic scarring, both involving tissue overgrowth in wound healing.

Are Peyronie’s disease sufferers prone to other related conditions?

About 30 percent of Peyronie’s disease sufferers also develop other systemic fibrosis in other connective tissue in the body. Common sites are the hands and feet. In Dupuytren’s contracture, scarring or thickening of the fibrosis tissue in the palm leads progressively to a permanent bending of the pinkie and ring fingers into the hand. While the fibrosis occurring in both diseases is similar, it is not clear yet what causes either plaque type or why men with Peyronie’s disease are more likely to develop Dupuytren’s contracture.

Will Peyronie’s disease evolve into cancer?

No. There are no documented cases of progression of Peyronie’s disease to malignancy. However, if your doctor observes other findings that are not typical with this disease—such as external bleeding, obstructed urination, prolonged severe penile pain—he or she may elect to perform a biopsy on the tissue for pathological examination.

What should men remember about Peyronie’s disease?

Peyronie’s disease is a well-recognized but poorly understood urological condition. Interventions need to be individualized to each patient, based on the timing and severity of the disease. The objective of any treatment should be on reducing pain, normalizing penile anatomy so that intercourse is comfortable and restoring erectile function in patients who suffer erectile dysfunction. Although surgical correction is ultimately successful in the majority of cases, the early acute phase of this disease is customarily treated by either oral and/or intralesional approaches. As medical researchers continue to develop basic and clinical research for a better understanding of this disease, more therapies and targets for intervention will become available.

Erectile dysfunction (ED) is the inability of a man to attain and/or maintain an erection sufficient for sexual activity. Fortunately, most men who have ED only lose the ability to have satisfactory erections. In other words, for most of these men, penile sensation is normal and the ability to have an orgasm and ejaculate (The fluid that is expelled from a man’s penis during sexual climax (orgasm). To release semen from the penis during an orgasm.) remains. Today, there are several treatment options available to men suffering from this disorder. Lifestyle changes are the first line of treatment with weight loss, smoking cessation and exercise associated with improved erections. For most men, the initial medical treatment will be an oral medication such as sildenafil citrate. If this treatment is unsuccessful, second-line treatment options are ordinarily considered. These include using a vacuum erection device (A device used for treatment of impotence that features a pump that draws air from a plastic cylinder placed over the penis and creates a vacuum that allows increased blood flow to the penis which causes and erection.), intraurethral medication (Medication administered via the urethra, the tube that carries urine outside the body from the bladder.) or penile injection therapy (Treatment for impotence that utilizes a combination of drugs that are injected into the side of the penis. The drugs relax the muscles and increase blood flow to create an erection.). If these second-line treatments fail or if the patient and his partner reject them, then the third-line treatment option, penile prosthesis implantation, is considered.

What are penile prostheses?

Penile prostheses are devices that are implanted completely within the body. They produce an erection-like state that enables the man who has one of these implants to have normal sexual intercourse. Neither the operation to implant a prosthesis nor the device itself will interfere with sensation, orgasm, ejaculation or urination. What are the different types of penile prostheses?

There are two erection chambers (corpora cavernosa) in the penis. All penile prostheses have a pair of components that are implanted within both of these erection chambers. The simplest penile prostheses consist simply of paired flexible rods that are usually made of medical-grade silicone, and produce a degree of permanent penile rigidity or firmness that enables the man to have sexual intercourse. These devices are either malleable (Able to be shaped or bent.) or inflatable. A malleable rod prosthesis can be bent downward for urination or upward for intercourse. Inflatable penile prostheses are fluid-filled devices that can be inflated for erection. They are the most natural feeling of the penile implants, as they allow for control of rigidity and size.

The inflatable devices have fluid-filled cylinders that are implanted within the erection chambers. Tubing connects these cylinders to a pump that is implanted inside the scrotum (Also referred to as the scrotal sac. The sac of tissue that hangs below the penis and contains the testicles.), the sac that contains the testicles (Also known as testis. Either of the paired, egg-shaped glands contained in a pouch (scrotum) below the penis. They produce sperm and the male hormone testosterone.). In the simplest of these inflatable devices, the pump transfers a small amount of fluid into the cylinders for erection, which then transfers out of the cylinders when erection is no longer needed. These devices are often referred to as two-component penile prostheses. One component is the paired cylinders and the second component is the scrotal pump.

Three-component inflatable penile prostheses have paired cylinders, a scrotal pump and an abdominal fluid reservoir. With these three-component devices, a larger volume of fluid is pumped into the cylinders for erection and out of the cylinders when erection is no longer needed.

What does penile prosthesis implantation involve?

Penile prostheses are usually implanted under anesthesia. Usually one small surgical cut is made either above the penis where it joins the abdomen or under the penis where it joins the scrotum. No tissue is removed, blood loss is small and blood transfusion (The transfer of blood from a healthy donor into the bloodstream of somebody who has lost blood or has a blood disorder.) is almost never required. A patient will typically spend one night in the hospital.

Most men have pain after penile prosthesis implantation for about four weeks. Initially, oral narcotic pain medication is required and driving is prohibited. If men limit their physical activity while pain is present, it usually resolves sooner. Men can often be instructed in using the prosthesis for sexual activity one month after surgery, but if pain and tenderness are still present, this is sometimes delayed for another month.

What are the complications of penile prosthesis surgery?

Infection occurs in 1 to 5 percent of cases. This is a significant complication because in order to eliminate the infection, it is almost always necessary to remove the prosthesis. In 1 to 3 percent of cases, erosion (The wearing away of surface tissue by disease, ulceration, cancer or the chemical processes associated with inflammation.) occurs when some part of the prosthesis protrudes outside the body. Erosion often is associated with infection and removal of the device is frequently necessary.

Mechanical failure is more likely to occur with inflatable than with rod prostheses. The fluid present inside the inflatable prosthesis leaks into the body; however, these prostheses contain normal saline (Containing salt.) that is absorbed without harm. After mechanical failure, another operation for prosthesis replacement or repair is necessary if the man wants to remain sexually active. Today’s three-component inflatable penile prostheses have about a 10 to 15 percent likelihood of failure in the first five years following their implantation.

Frequently asked questions:

Is penile prosthesis implantation covered by insurance?

Although all third-party payers do not cover penile prosthesis implantation, most including Medicare do if the prosthesis is implanted to treat erectile dysfunction caused by an organic disorder.

Will a penile prosthesis interfere with urination?

It normally does not.

Erectile dysfunction (ED) is a medical term that describes the inability to achieve and or maintain an erect penis adequate for sexual function. This condition is one of the most common sexual problems for men and the number of men suffering from ED increases with age. Approximately 25 million American men suffer from ED, although not all men are equally distressed by the problem.

What happens under normal conditions?

Achieving a normal erection is a complex process involving psychological impulses from the brain, adequate levels of the male sex hormone testosterone (Male hormone responsible for sexual desire and for regulating a number of body functions.), a functioning nervous system, and adequate and healthy vascular tissue in the penis. The simplest way to describe the process of erection is to think of a washing machine. The “on-off” switch (the brain) initiates the process; the wires in the washing machine (the nerves) carry the electrical signal to the pipes (the blood vessels), when an appropriate signal arrives a valve opens to allow water to flow in (the arteries carry blood into the penis) and the drain shuts (the penile veins close). Water flows in and fills the tank (the penis fills with blood and becomes erect) and the wash cycle begins (enjoys sexual activity). At the end of the wash cycle this process reverses, the switch goes to the off position (the brain terminates erection), the valve closes (the arteries markedly decrease blood inflow) and the drain opens draining the wash tank of water (the veins open, blood leaves the penis and erection subsides).

What are the risk factors for ED?

There are risk factors for the development of ED. As men age, the level of circulating testosterone decreases, which may interfere with normal erection. While a low testosterone level itself is rarely the cause of ED (5 percent or less), low testosterone can be an additional contributing factor in many men who have other risk factors for ED. Low levels of sexual desire, lack of energy, mood disturbances and depression can all be symptoms of low testosterone. A simple blood test can determine if the testosterone level is abnormally low, and testosterone can be replaced using a number of different delivery systems (e.g., shots, skin patches, gels, pills placed under the tongue).

What are some causes of ED?

By far, the most important cause of the development of ED is the presence of illnesses like high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus (A condition characterized by high blood sugar resulting from the body’s inability to use sugar (glucose) as it should. In type 1 diabetes, the pancreas is not able to make enough insulin; in type 2 diabetes, the body is resistant to using available insulin.), high cholesterol levels and cardiovascular disease. These processes, acting over time, can lead to a degeneration of the penile blood vessels, leading to restriction of blood inflow through the arteries and also to leakage of blood through the veins during erection.

The choices we make in life can lead to degeneration of the erectile tissue and the development of ED. Smoking, drug or alcohol abuse, particularly over a long period of time, will compromise the blood vessels of the penis. Lack of exercise and a sedentary lifestyle will contribute to the development of ED. Correction of these conditions will contribute to overall health and may in some individuals correct mild ED. Treatment of many medical conditions can interfere with normal erections. Drugs used to treat these risk factors listed above may also lead to or worsen ED. Patients undergoing surgery or radiation therapy for cancer of the prostate (In men, a walnut-shaped gland that surrounds the urethra at the neck of the bladder. The prostate supplies fluid that goes into semen.), bladder, colon (Large intestine.) or rectum (The lower part of the large intestine, ending in the anal opening.) are at high risk for the development of ED.

How is ED diagnosed?

For most patients, the diagnosis will require a simple medical history, physical examination and a few routine blood tests. Most patients do not require extensive testing before beginning treatment. The choice of testing and treatment depends on the goals of the individual. If erection returns with simple treatment like oral medication and the patient is satisfied, no further diagnosis and treatment are necessary. If the initial treatment response is inadequate or the patient is not satisfied,then further steps may be taken. In general, as more invasive treatment options are chosen, testing may be more complex.

What are some non-surgical treatments?

The first line of therapy for uncomplicated ED is use of oral medications known as phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors (PDE-5)  - sildenafil citrate, vardenafil HCl or tadalafil. Men with ED take these pills before beginning sexual activity and the drugs boost the natural signals that are generated during sex, thereby improving and prolonging the erection itself. These medications are safe and fairly effective, with improvement in erection in nearly 80 percent of patients using these drugs. Early concerns about possible bad effects on the heart have not proven true; after extensive testing and five years of use, sildenafil citrate can be used safely by all heart patients except those using medications called nitrates because of an interaction between these two classes of drugs. The side effects of PDE-5 inhibitors are mild and usually transient, decreasing in intensity with continued use. The most common side effects are headache, stuffy nose, flushing and muscle aches. In rare cases, sildenafil can cause blue-green shading of vision due to high blood levels of sildenafil exerting a brief effect on the retina of the eye. This is of no long-term risk and is gone within a short time as the amount of sildenafil in the blood decreases. It is important to follow the instructions for using these medications in order to get the best results. Tests have shown that 40 percent of men who do not respond to sildenafil will respond when they receive proper instruction on medication use.

For men who do not respond to oral medications another drug, alprostadil, is approved for use in men with ED. This drug comes in two forms: injections that the patient places directly into the side of the penis and a transurethral suppository. Success rates with self-injection can reach 85 percent. Modifying alprostadil to allow transurethral delivery avoids the need for a shot, but reduces the effectiveness of the agent to 40 percent. The most common adverse effects of alprostadil use are a burning sensation in the penis and the risk of over correcting the problem, resulting in a prolonged erection lasting over four hours and requiring medical intervention to reverse the erection.

For men who cannot or do not wish to use drug therapy, an external vacuum device may be acceptable. This device combines a plastic cylinder or tube that slips over the penis, making a seal with the skin of the body. A pump on the opposite end of the cylinder creates a low-pressure vacuum around the erectile tissue, which results in an erection. To keep the erection once the plastic cylinder is removed a rubber constriction band goes around the base of the penis, which maintains the erection. With proper instruction 75 percent of men can achieve a functional erection using a vacuum erection device.

There are some men who have severe degeneration in the tissues of the penis, which makes them unable to respond to any of the treatments listed above. While this is a small number of men, they usually have the most severe forms of ED. Patients most likely to fall into this group are men with advanced diabetes, men who suffered from ED before undergoing surgical or radiation treatment for prostate or bladder cancer and men with deformities of the penis called Peyronie’s disease (A plaque (hardened area) that forms on the penis, preventing that area from stretching. During erection, the penis bends in the direction of the plaque, or the plaque may lead to indentation and shortening of the penis.). For these patients reconstructive prosthetic surgery (placement of a penile prosthesis or “implant”) will restore erection, with patient satisfaction rates approaching 90 percent. Surgical prosthetic placement normally can be performed in an outpatient setting or with one night of hospital observation. Possible adverse effects include infection of the prosthesis or mechanical failure of the device.

What can be expected after treatment?

All of the treatments above, with the exception of prosthetic reconstructive surgery, are temporary and meant for use on demand. The treatments compensate for but do not correct the underlying problem in the penis. So it is important to follow-up with your doctor and report on the success of the therapy. If your goals are not reached, if your erection is not of sufficient quality or duration and you are still distressed, you should explore the alternatives with your doctor. Because the medications used are not correcting the problems leading to ED, your response over time may not be what it once was. If such should occur again, have a repeat discussion with your physician about the remaining treatment options.

Frequently Asked Questions

How do I know my ED is not in my head?

Many years ago most men with ED were thought to have psychological problems. This was the result of our ignorance of the normal mechanism of erection and the causes of ED. We now realize that most men have underlying physical causes.

If I worry about my ability to get an erection can I make a bad condition worse?

Nothing happens in the body without the brain; worrying about your ability to get an erection can itself interfere with the process. This condition is called performance anxiety and can be overcome with education and treatment.

Can I combine treatment options?

This is often done but because of the risk of prolonged erections with drug therapy it should only be performed under physician supervision. Ask your doctor for proper instructions.

I was fine until I began taking this new drug, what should I do?

Many drugs can cause ED, but some cannot be changed because the benefits outweigh the adverse effects. If you are fairly certain that a specific drug has caused the problem, discuss the possibility of a medication change with your doctor. If you must remain on the specific medication causing the problem, the treatment options outlined above can still be used in most cases.

Infertility is a common yet complex problem affecting approximately 15 percent of couples attempting to conceive a baby. In up to 50 percent of couples having difficulty getting pregnant, the problem is at least in part related to male reproductive issues. It is essential that men be assessed to pinpoint the treatable or untreatable causes of this heartbreaking health issue. Fortunately, with today’s high-tech procedures and powerful drugs, a diagnosis of infertility may simply mean the road to parenthood may be challenging but not impossible. So read below to learn more about the available treatment options so you are better prepared when talking with your urologist and/or fertility specialist.

What happens under normal conditions?

Male fertility depends on the production of normal sperm (Also referred to as spermatozoa. Male germ cells (gametes or reproductive cells) that are produced by the testicles and that are capable of fertilizing the female partner’s eggs. Cells resemble tadpoles if seen by the naked eye.) and the delivery of it to a female partner’s vagina. The process begins with spermatogenesis, or the development of sperm in the testicles (Also known as testis. Either of the paired, egg-shaped glands contained in a pouch (scrotum) below the penis. They produce sperm and the male hormone testosterone.). Sperm cells (spermatozoa) are produced by a complicated process of cell division that occurs over a period of several months. Once formed, sperm leave the testicle and are stored in the epididymis (A coiled tube attached to the back and upper side of the testicle that stores sperm and is connected to the vas deferens) where they fully develop. They are then pushed through the vas deferens (Also referred to as vas. The cordlike structure that carries sperm from the testicle to the ejaculatory duct, whicn in turn carries it to the urethra.) and urethra (In males, this narrow tube carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body and also serves as the channel through which semen is ejaculated. Extends from the bladder to the tip of the penis. In females, this short, narrow tube carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body.) during ejaculation (Release of semen from the penis during sexual climax (orgasm).). The production and maturation of sperm require the presence of an intact genetic blueprint in addition to a favorable environment. In particular, the presence of adequate levels of the male hormone testosterone (Male hormone responsible for sexual desire and for regulating a number of body functions.) and a slightly decreased scrotal temperature are necessary.

What is male infertility?

Male infertility is any condition in which the man adversely affects the chances of initiating a pregnancy with his female partner. Most commonly, those problems arise when the man is unable to produce or deliver fully-functioning sperm.

What causes male infertility?

Your doctor will be interested in any factor, including possible structural and other defects in the reproductive system, hormonal deficiencies, illness or even trauma that might be impairing your fertility. Their investigation will center on many possible combinations of factors, the most common of which are:

Sperm disorders: Problems with the production and development of sperm are the most common problems of male infertility. Sperm may be underdeveloped, abnormally shaped or unable to move properly. Or, normal sperm may be produced in abnormally low numbers (oligospermia, low number of sperm in the ejaculate. ) or seemingly not at all (azoospermia, absence of sperm in the ejaculate fluid.).

Varicoceles: These dilated scrotal veins are present in 16 percent of all men but are more common in infertile men—40 percent. They impair sperm development by preventing proper drainage of blood. Varicoceles are easily discovered on physical examination since the veins feel distinctively like a bag of worms. They may also be enlarged and twisted enough to be visible in the scrotum (Also referred to as the scrotal sac. The sac of tissue that hangs below the penis and contains the testicles.). This is the most common correctable cause of male infertility.

Retrograde ejaculation: Retrograde ejaculation occurs when semen pushes backwards into the bladder instead of out the penis. This is caused by the failure of nerves and muscles in the bladder neck (Area of thickened muscle fiber where the bladder joins the urethra. Acting on signals from the brain, bladder neck muscles can either tighten to hold urine in the bladder or relax to allow urine out and into the urethra. These muscles also tighten during ejaculation to prevent backflow of semen into the bladder.) to close during orgasm. It is one of several difficulties couples may have delivering sperm to the vagina during intercourse. Retrograde ejaculation can be caused by previous surgery, medications or diseases affecting the nervous system. Signs of this condition may include cloudy urine after ejaculation and diminished or “dry” ejaculation with orgasm.

Immunologic infertility: Triggered by a man’s immunologic response to his own sperm, antibodies (Proteins that fight infections.) are usually the product of injury, surgery or infection. In attacking the sperm, they prevent normal movement and function of the sperm. Although researchers do not yet understand just exactly how antibodies damage fertility, they know that these antibodies can make it more difficult for sperm to swim to the uterus and penetrate eggs.

Obstruction: Blocking sperm from its normal passage, obstructions can be caused by a number of factors, such as repeated infections, prior surgery (including vasectomy), inflammation or development problems. Any portion of the male reproductive tract, such as the vas deferens or epididymis, can be obstructed, preventing normal transport of sperm from the testicles to the urethra, where it leaves the body during ejaculation.

Hormones: Hormones produced by the pituitary gland (The main endocrine gland. It is a small oval shaped structure in the head and it regulates growth, sexual maturing and metabolism.) are responsible for stimulating the testicles to make sperm. Therefore, when levels are severely low, poor sperm development can result.

Genetics: Genetics play a central role in fertility, particularly since sperm carry half of the DNA mix to the partner’s egg. Abnormalities in chromosomal numbers and structure as well as deletions on the important Y chromosome present in normal males can also impact fertility.

Medication: Certain medications can affect sperm production, function and ejaculation. Such medications are usually prescribed to treat conditions like arthritis, depression, digestive problems, infections, hypertension (High blood pressure, which can be caused either by too much fluid in the blood vessels or by the narrowing of blood vessels.) and even cancer.

How is male infertility diagnosed?

The process begins with a complete history and physical exam and is usually followed by blood work and semen analysis.

From a sample of semen routinely obtained through masturbation into a sterilized cup, the physician will be able to assess factors—volume, count, concentration, movement and structure of spermatozoa—that help or hinder conception.

Even if the semen analysis shows low sperm numbers, or even no sperm, it does not necessarily mean absolute infertility. Low values in any of the above categories may just indicate a problem with the development or delivery of sperm that simply requires further evaluation.

For instance, your physician may order a transrectal ultrasound (Also referred to as TRUS. This is a special kind of ultrasound test in which the sound waves are produced by a probe inserted into the rectum. In men, the structures most commonly examined with this test are the prostate, bladder, seminal vesicles and ejaculatory ducts.), an imaging test that places a probe into the rectum (The lower part of the large intestine, ending in the anal opening.) to beam high-frequency sound waves to nearby ejaculatory ducts (The passage through which semen enters the urethra.). This test can help your physician determine if these structures are either poorly developed or obstructed with cysts (An abnormal sac containing gas, fluid or a semisolid material. Cysts may form in kidneys or other parts of the body.), calcifications (Abnormal hardening or stiffening of a body part.) or other blockages.

A testicular biopsy (Removal of a sample of testicle tissue for laboratory examination.) comes into play when a semen analysis shows very low number of sperm or no sperm. This test is performed in an operating room under general or regional anesthesia through a small cut in the scrotum. It may also be done in a clinic using a needle inserted through skin over the testicle that has been anesthetized. In either case, a small piece of tissue is removed from each testicle for microscopic evaluation. The biopsy serves two purposes: to determine the cause of infertility, and, if necessary, to retrieve sperm for use in assisted reproduction.

Besides a semen analysis, your doctor may order a hormonal profile to discover the sperm-producing ability of your testicles and to rule out serious conditions. For instance, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is the pituitary hormone responsible for stimulating testicles to produce sperm. High levels may indicate that the pituitary is trying to stimulate the testicles to make sperm though they are not responding.

How is male infertility treated?

The treatment for male infertility depends on the specific problem. In some severe cases, no treatment is available. However, many times there are a mix of medications, surgical approaches and assisted reproductive techniques (ART) available to overcome many of the underlying fertility problems. The options are:

Surgery: Minor outpatient surgery (varicocelectomy, the ligation (tying off) of a varicocele.) is frequently used to repair dilated scrotal veins (varicoceles, dilated varicose veins in the scrotum that drain the testis and can impair the process of formation of sperm.). Studies have shown that repairing these dilated veins results in improved sperm movement, concentration and structure. In some cases, obstruction causing infertility can also be surgically corrected. In the case of a previous vasectomy, surgery using an operating microscope has been found to be very successful in reversing the obstruction.

Medication: Drugs are key in correcting retrograde ejaculation and immunologic infertility. In addition, pituitary hormone deficiency may be corrected with drugs such as clomiphene or gonadotropin.

If these techniques fail, fertility specialists have a variety of other high-tech assisted reproductive techniques that promote conception without intercourse. Depending on your problem your physician may look to:

Intrauterine insemination (IUI): By placing sperm directly into the uterus via a catheter, IUI bypasses cervical mucus that may be hostile to the sperm and puts them close to the fallopian tubes (There are two fallopian tubes, one on each side of the uterus. They transport an egg from the ovary to the uterus.) where fertilization occurs. IUI is often successful in overcoming sperm count and movement problems, retrograde ejaculation, immunologic infertility and other causes of infertility.

In vitro fertilization (IVF): Refers to fertilization taking place outside the body in a laboratory Petri dish. There, the egg of a female partner or donor is joined with sperm. With IVF, the ovaries must be overly stimulated, usually with fertility drugs that allow retrieval of multiple mature eggs. After 48 to 72 hours of incubation, the fertilized egg (embryo) is inserted in the uterus and normal pregnancy should result. While IVF is employed mostly for women with obstructed fallopian tubes, it is occasionally used for men with oligospermia.

Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI): A variation of in vitro fertilization, this procedure has revolutionized treatment of severe male infertility, permitting couples previously thought infertile to conceive. It involves injecting a single sperm directly into the egg with a microscopic needle and then, once it is fertilized, transferring it to the female partner’s uterus. Your doctor is likely to use ICSI if you have very poor semen quality or lack of sperm in the semen caused by an obstruction or testicular failure. In some cases, sperm may be surgically extracted from the testicles or epididymis for this procedure.

Frequently asked questions:

What diseases can cause male factor infertility?

A variety of diseases—from kidney disease to testicular cancer—can result in male infertility. For instance, systemic conditions and metabolic disorders, along with ordinary fevers and infections, can impair the development of sperm. In addition, sexually transmitted diseases (Any of a diverse group of infections caused by biologically dissimilar pathogens and transmitted by sexual contact.) can lead to obstruction and scarring of the reproductive tract while genetic conditions, such as cystic fibrosis, may result in lack of sperm due to missing vas deferens or seminal vesicles. Since any number of illnesses can be a factor, it is essential that both you and your partner know and share your family and personal medical histories with your doctor.

Can cigarette smoke affect semen?

Yes. Research has shown that regular smoking impacts the sperm in a variety of ways. It decreases the size and movement of these cells and damages their DNA content. Smoking also can impact the seminal fluid, ejaculated with the sperm.

Can the use of steroids for body building cause infertility?

Yes. Steroids taken either by mouth or injection can shut down the production of hormones needed for sperm production.

Do abnormal semen analyses or sperm lead to children with birth defects?

Not necessarily. For the majority of couples seeking fertility treatment, the risk of conceiving a child with a birth defect is the same as the general population. Though, some disorders (especially genetic disorders) that cause infertility may also cause an increased risk of conceiving a child with birth defects. It is for this reason that couples need thorough evaluation and counseling prior to proceeding with some forms of assisted reproductive techniques.

What is the most important thing I should remember about male infertility?

Neither you nor your partner should be blamed for any problems you have with fertility. The American Society of Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) estimates that roughly one-third of infertility cases can be attributed to male factors, with another one-third due to women. In the remaining one-third of infertile couples, infertility is caused by either a combination of factors, or, in 20 percent of cases, is still unexplained. (In men, few or no sperm is the biggest problem; in women, the common problems are ovulation disorders and blocked tubes.) But today, physicians have the technology and surgical tools to address many of those problems.